Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.

Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Essay Instructions Select ONE of the subsequent topics Source and review relevant literature (minimum 10 relevant academic references; Google Scholar allows you to access many articles online/free) Critically evaluate and discuss the topic Submit a 1,000 word essay (+/- 100; hard copy to be submitted to me in class on January 16 or any time before that in my mailbox #304 on the ground floor of the Tokushokan building) Evaluation Criteria Understanding and interpretation of essay topic Selection and scope of references Interpretation of references Critical analysis Strength and quality of argument Accessibility of writing style and language use Logical and clear organization of sections & cohesion between sections Completeness (in-text citations, preparation of reference list, number of references, word count, and generally adherence to guidelines) Tips Generally speaking, it is better to keep the scope/focus of the topic narrow Aim for depth, not breadth I am not looking for you to repeat things that have already been discussed in class, but to add novel insight, more complexity, another dimension to the topic you select Essay Topics (select ONE of the following topics) In what way does culture influence our notions of gendered communication? “Gender is a powerful force in structuring our social lives, and one cannot deny the social reality of ‘male’ and ‘female’ social categories. But categories are never simply descriptive; they are normative statements that draw lines around who is included and excluded (Butler 1990). Computational and quantitative models have often treated gender as a stable binary opposition, and in so doing, have perpetuated a discourse that treasures differences over similarities, and reinforces the ideology of the status quo. It is not a theoretical innovation to suggest that gender is more complicated than two categories.” (Bamman, Eisenstein & Schoebelen, 2014: 153) How can gender research be approached in a way that does justice to the greater gender complexity we have in society? Women serve as elected heads of state or government in only 28 countries, according to the U.N.  But a survey suggests the global public might happily welcome many more. About 70% of queried respondents believe that countries led by women tend to be better managed, according to a U.S. News survey involving more than 17,000 people from 36 countries. Discuss why you think the stereotype that men are better suited to being leaders persists, even when there is evidence that female leadership is positive? Choose your own topic of interest (check with me first regarding feasibility and scope).
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Gendered talk in same sex conversationsConversational goals and communicative intentions Women’s talk Female Speech•Female speech style is typically associated with gossip Gossip•What is gossip?•Te l l i n g d e t a i l s o f o t h e r ’s l i v e s•These details become gossip when the friend to whom they are told repeats them to someone else•A grown-up version of girls telling secrets to each other Gossip•Used to be (and still is today) seen as something evil and undesirable•Often associated with old women, hags and crones•Seen as manipulative•The label ‘gossip’ trivializes women’s conversations Gossip: Functions•Emphasize group membership•Create solidarity•Maintain unity•In-group/out-group boundaries•Entertainment To p i c d e v e l o p m e n t•Women build on each other ’s contributions•Prefer continuity•To p i c s h i f t i s s u p p o s e d t o o c c u r g r a d u a l l y•Single topics can last for quite some time To p i c d e v e l o p m e n t•Typical pattern•A introduces topic•B tells anecdote on same theme•C tells another anecdote on same theme leading to•General discussion•Summary•Gradual shift to new topic Storytelling•Recounting recent events•Updating the other on one’s life•At a superficial look it is not always clear what the point of a story is•Reason behind a woman’s story is often implicit•Evaluative component often deeply embedded in the context within which the story is told•Often goes hand in hand with identity construction Women’s impressions of gendered talkOn their own style•Softer •More sensitive •Spontaneous•Concrete•Brief•Simple•Understandable On men’s style•Authoritative•Solemn•Impersonal•Repetitive•Pompous•Abstract Conversational goals•Rapport-talk•Crucial to be liked•Driven by wish for affiliation Men’s talk Men’s talk•Monologues•Stretches of conversation where one holds the floor for a considerable time•Assert expertise in an area through such monologues•Consecutive turns of ‘expert’ talk monologues•Silences•Lack of verbal feedback•Direct expression of disagreement Men’s talk•Ve r bal s par r i ng•Adversarial stances•Quick-fire turn-taking•Rapid succession of short turns•One-upping the other (starts at little boys’ age) Storytelling•Alsorecent events•Not to update the other on one’s life•Stories to illustrate more general points on a particular topic•Men’s stories often underline their control of a situation, their competence, or resistance to unreasonable authoritarianism•Often includes swear words Men’s impressionsOn their own style•Soft•Sensitive•Friendly•Simple•Engaged•Inexperienced On women’s style•Prestigious•Aggressive•Difficult•Formal •Bureaucratic •To o w o r d y Conversational Goals•Report-talk•Crucial to be respected•Driven by a wish for status (power-imbalance) Same but Different Same but Different•Women and men use the same communicative means•They use them with different intentions, interactional goals and outcomes To p i cWomen•Personal•People•Feelings •Shared experiences•Foster self-disclosureMen•Impersonal•Current affairs•Cars•Sport •Avoid self-disclosure Minimal ResponseWomen•Interactional goals•Foster relationships•Be supportive•Be encouraging•Facilitate conversation•Skilled use at non-turn-competitive instancesMen•Interactional goals•Tactical reasons•To undermine current speaker•To reinforce male dominance QuestionsWomen•Avoid information-seeking questions•Questions to •invite others to participate•introduce new topics•hedge•check the views of others•instigate storiesMen•Primarily information-seeking questions•Questions to•Encourage speakers to take on expert role Tu r n-takingWomen•Collaborative floor•Floor is potentially open to all participants at the same time•Overlaps and interruptions for facilitative purposesMen•Individual floor•One-at-a-time turn-taking•Overlaps are rare•Interruptions are competitive Women’s and men’s talkWomen•Collaborative•Supporting other speakers•Using language to emphasize solidarityMen•Competitive/ Adversarial•Stressing individuality•Emphasizing hierarchical relationships Homework•Reading•Textbook. Eckert, P. and McConnell-Ginet(2003). Language and Gender. –Chapter 4.•Or•Sourceareadingofyour own choice relating to same-sex conversations
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Gender differenceLinguistic variation and social function Early research on gender differences•Sociolinguistic variation•When e.g.a vowel is pronounced in a certain way rather than in another way•E.g.in the midwestof the US the word ‘ham’ is often pronounced more as [hem] than as [hæm]•This variability does not change the identity of the word•The difference in pronunciation carries social meaning Standard/non-standard •Bulk of early research on gender difference looks at use of standard/non-standard speech forms•Standard=standardized norm, RP, careful newsreaders•Non-standard=vernacular, slang Standard/non-standard•Syntax•Detroit Black English -% use of double negative (non-standard)•E.g.“I don’t have no money”menwomenLMC32%1%LWC90%59%(LMC=lower middle class; LWC=lower working class) Standard/non-standard•PronunciationTyneside, Newcastle, UK -% use of glottalizedp (non-standard)menwomenMC96%27%WC99%60% Explanations•Women use less non-standard forms than. Men in all SES categories•Women’s speech is therefore seen as moreconservative•WHY?•Women are more status-conscious•Women are more polite•Women use more overt prestige while men use more covert prestige•Women are upwardly mobile Explanations•Women’s position in society is generally subordinate to men’s and because women have fewer opportunities to secure their positions through occupational success or other abilities, they find it necessary to use symbolic means to enhance their position•Men have greater legitimacy in certain institutions, so women have toprove they belong by means of symbolic capital•Maybe more jobs that are related to languages have traditionally been accessible to women, or because women are more interested in jobs relating to language, they use more standard (e.g.teacher, writer, academic, receptionist) –i.e.need to use standard on a professional level Problems•Later explanations:•Situation-based•Data based on formal interviews •women might be more conscious of how they are perceived in a formal interview situation•Accommodation •CAT, women are more likely to accommodate their interactional partner•Different perception of situation •Mostly male interviewers, so the situation is different for female and male respondents in terms of establishing solidarity Problems•Later explanations:•Interactional patterns•Speech style: Amount of interaction outside community •the more outside contact, the more standard, if community is isolated more non-standard•Strength of social networks •strong network: non-standard; weak network: standard•Working class pattern•men •work together in factories, tight social networks, non-standard•women work in shops or domestic service, more interaction with middle class, loose social networks, more standard•Side note: In situations where women have tight social networksthey also use more non-standard speech! Problems•Later explanations:Construction of identity•Non-standard has associations with male identity; standard has associations with female identity•Speakers chose to speak in a way that projects their identity•Women construct identity in double contrast: contrast with men of same SES, contrast with women of different SES Communicative Competence•Communicative competence is a combination of•Correct grammar and language use•Contextual appropriateness•i.e.you have tolook at both, linguistic features and situational/contextual factors Communicative Competence•Women and men’s behaviourin conversation suggests that they have a different understanding of how e.g.a compliment is done•Gendered differences in conversational strategies have led researchers to talk about male and female conversational styles•Style as a preference, rather than an expression of socio-cultural status Backchannels•Minimal responses•Female ‘speciality’•Used considerably more by women Hedges•Women use more hedges than men•Example: you know•“and it was quite xx well it was it was all very embarrassing you know”•Example: like•“Josephine used to come hereand I was her likereally good friends with her she was likemy best friend” Questions•Who do you think makes more use of questions and tag questions?•Why?•E.g.The crisis in the Middle East is terrible.•Vs. The crisis in the Middle East is terrible, isn’t it? Commands and directives•Fathers were found to use more directives than mothers•Fathers were found to use more directives to sons than to daughters•Children and adults were both found to use different kinds of directives Swearing and taboo language•Gomm(1981) recorded fourteen conversations between young British speakers: the participants were all female in five of these, all male in five, and mixed in four. An analysis of the transcripts reveals no qualitative differences in use of sear words, butshows differences in frequency between male and female usage. Clearly, the male speakers in Gomm’ssample swear more often than the female speakers. Moreover, both women and men swear more in company of their own gender.Single-Sex GroupsMixed GroupsTo t a lMen21425Wo me n729 Backchannels•Minimal responseTina: she provided the appropriate sayings for particular timesand andLyn: rightTina: soon she didn’t actually TEACHthem but she justLyn: right provided a Tina: provided a model you know you –you must refer toLyn: model yeah mhmTina: this and this and she actually produceda bookLyn: mhmmhmmhmmhmTina: that set out some of these ideas at the very simplest levelLyn: mhm(from Holmes, 1995: 55) Backchannels•What characteristics do femaleminimal responses have? What social function do they perform?•Supportive•Facilitative•Skilled placement•No overlap•Non-interruptive•Sensitive•Encouraging•Supporting the other•Maintaining relationships•Solidarity-building Te n t a t i v e / u n a s s e r t i v e•Women use more hedges (I think, You know, sort of, perhaps)•Hedges express uncertainty•Women use a weak style Confidence/uncertainty•Distribution of you know by functionFunctionfemalemaleExpressing confidence5637Expressing uncertainty3350To t a l8987 Context•Gender differences have tobe considered in context•De-contextualized observations, such as ‘women interrupt more often’ is meaningless unless you look at the functions of interruption and the context in which they occur•Differences may be due to •Direct link•i.e.being men or women•Indirect link•Engaging in different activities…•Fulfilling different social roles… …that are associated with a gender Homework•Reading •Textbook: Talbot, M. (2010). Language and Gender. –Chapter 2.•Further reading •Textbook: Eckert, P. and McConnell-Ginet. (2003). Language and Gender. –Chapter 8.
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Gender Construction Assessment•Presentation•Weeks 8 & 9•Free Topic choice: i.e. you get to choose to do any project related to the topics we covered in class –anything at all that interests you•Draw on appropriate academic materials (Google Scholar allows you to access many academic articles for free)•In-class presentation (5 minutes)•Evaluates your speaking, presentation, research, preparation skills and cohesiveness of materials Breaking with traditional roles•Difference & Dominance approach: the two genders are distinct and differ in their roles and functions•Social Constructionist theory: both genders have the opportunity toconstruct & re-construct their identity Gender vs. Sex•Sex = biological/binary (99.8% of humans)•Gender = sociocultural/fluid Gender continuum•Language and gender research suggests (more often than not) that females act relatively consistently as a category as do males, however:•Gender is not a binary category•Gender can be and is constructed along a continuum of femininity and masculinity Gender construction theory•Linked to discursive psychology•Gender as action in talk•Identity is not viewed as something that people are•Identity is viewed as something that people doduring the business of everyday interaction Social Construction theory & linguistics•Speech too is a repeated stylization of the body•i.e.masculine and feminine styles of talking identified by researchers are a ‘congealed’ result of repeated acts by social actors who constitute themselves as ‘proper’ men or women•Language is seen as both•A medium for expressing gender identity•A medium for reflecting gender identity Social onstructiontheory & Linguistics•Gender is conceptualized as a process •Something we do, produce, accomplish, perform•Gender identity is a communicative achievement•Gender is an effect of discursive practices Gender Construction•Gender construction is not necessarily about assuming one identity or another identity as a permanent fixture•Gender construction is about negotiation and renegotiation of gender identities•Gender construction is thus more about foregrounding a particular gender identity depending on the social and contextual circumstances (both in speech style and behaviour) Gender construction theory•Many language and gender studies assume that participants have an internalized gender identity•People’s speech is seen as causally related to that identity•Gender construction theory deviates from this approach to language and gender Gender construction theory•Characteristics•Dynamic•Flexible•Negotiable•Changeable Gender construction theory•Unlike difference and dominance approach that view gender as a socially defined, fixed role, gender construction theory sees gender as a flexible category that•We create according to our own wishes•Is not created for us by society•Is non-conformist in nature•Is individual and independent•Is more shared by communities of practices than society at large Homework•Reading•Textbook. Talbot, M. (2010). Language and Gender. –Chapter 7.•Further Reading•Textbook. Talbot, M. (2010). Language and Gender. –Chapter 11.
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Gender & conversational humour What is humour?•“Instances of humour included in this analysis are utterances which are identified by the analyst, on the basis of paralinguistic, prosodic and discoursal clues, as intended by the speaker(s) to be amusing and perceived to be amusing by at least some participants” (Holmes and Marra) Why do we use humour•Construction of in-group cohesion•Construction of solidarity•Hedging face-threats•Managing tensions•Alleviate the impact of authoritative behaviour•Challenge authority Women and humour•Women are often considered humourless•Can’t produce humour•Don’t appreciate humour•Don’t tell jokes Females and Humour?—Women are considered to have a sense of humourwhen they respond to and appreciate it not when they produce it—As a consequencewomen use humouronly when among themselves—Women never use humourin mixed-sex groups—Women are neither expected nor trained to use humourin public—Grotjahn: “the woman of today had better not show her wit too obviously if she is young and intelligent forshe will scare the contemporary male who is easily frightened in his masculinity” Exercise•“The truth is …that women have not only no humour in themselves but are the cause of the extinction of it in others. This is almost too cruel to be true, but in every waywomen correspond to and are representative of nature. Is there any humour in nature? A glance at the zoo will answer this question… [w]omen are the undifferentiated mass of nature from which the contradictions of real and ideal arise and they are the unlaughing at which men laugh.” (Blyth, 1959) Exercise•“Great comedians have exploited the funniness of women… [who are] unable… to comprehend the laughter they evoke in the presence of their male colleagues” (1973: 197) Exercise•“I wonder why it was that when a man tells a joke and women don’t laughwe are told we have no sense of humor, but when a woman tells a joke and men don’t laughwe are told we are not funny” (Jenkins) Women and humour•Since the advent of alternative comedy in the late 1970s there has been a slight improvement in women’s representation as comedians, although Littlewood and Pickering commented that alternative comedy remained elitist (1998:300). Cook (1994) comments that his selection ‘reflects the one in ten ratio of women to men on the circuit’ (p.13). Study—Crawford and Gressley:Questionnaire enquiring about self-report data on use of humourin the following categories: hostility, cutting, sarcastic, humourat others expense, jokes, creativity, spontaneous, can think on feet, real life, stories and anecdotes, caring, to alleviate anger and tension. Findings—Crawford and Gressley—Men used creativity dimension significantly more than women—Males reported to enjoy slapstick and hostile (e.g.racist or sexist) humour—Males: more use of formulaic joking—Females: more anecdotal humour Study•Vitulliand BarbinQuestionnaires on whether subjects thought that humourwas a male oriented or female oriented activity and if there is a perceived difference in reaction to humourdepending on whether the initiator was male or female. Findings•Vitulliand Barbin•Men more than women thought humourto be a male oriented behaviour•School more than college males thought humourwas a male oriented domain•School more than college females thought that humourwas a female oriented domain Study•Ervin-Tr i p p a n d L a m p e r tInvestigated humourin naturally occurring situations. Findings•Ervin-Tr i p p a n d L a m p e r t•Men are more likely to initiate a humorous key•Women are more collaborative in their humour•Men’s self-directed humouris more novel and tends to be more false/exaggerated•Women volunteered real stories about themselves to heal old embarrassments and build togetherness•Women use humourto share and cope•Men use humourto defend and equalize Study•MitchellCollected jokes. Findings¢Mitchell¢Men told more openly aggressive jokes¢Men seemed to enjoy competitive joke-telling sessions¢Women rarely participated in these sessions¢Men were more likely to use jokes to deride someone they did not like¢Women preferred to tell jokes in their homes/small groups of close friends¢Men enjoyed joke-telling to larger audiences¢Men told a higher percentage of obscene jokes (religious, ethnic, racial, death and drinking)¢Women used more wordplay¢Women used more question and answerjokes Gender DifferencesMale Humour•Exclusive•Challenging•Segmented•Pre-formulated•Self-aggrandizingFemale Humour•Cooperative•Inclusive•Supportive•Integrated•Spontaneous•Self-healing Homework•Reading•Holmes, J. 2006. Sharing a laugh. Journal of Pragmatics 38: 1, 26-50.
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Gendered speech across cultures Overview•Gender identities & attitudes across cultures•Conversational styles across cultures•Gendered languages Gender & Culture•Gender is constructed and enacted differently across cultures•Different cultures associate different communicative styles with men and women•Such styles are by no means uniform•Different styles are attributed different values Differences across the world•Differences in•Behaviours•Gender-identities•What’s considered ‘normal’•Attitudes to gender•Speech style Distinguish•There is a distinction, however, between sex-exclusive and sex-preferential differentiation•Unlike sex-exclusive differences, sex-preferential differences are not absolute, they are matters of degree•Both types are highly culture-specific•Acquiring them an important part of learning how to behave as ‘proper’ men and women in particular cultures Pohnpei•Ward (1979): •Te e n a g e g i r l n a m e d M a r i a s t a r t e d t o b e h a v e l i k e a b o y•Family and community met and held a feast to declare her a boy•Cut her hair, dressed her as a boy and called her Mario French Polynesia•In Tahiti it is ‘normal’ and frequently observed that men take on a female gender identity•Mahoosor Mahhus(in Samoa fa’afafine= like a lady)•Eldest male in the family was often raised to be feminine •Dress, attitude and mannerism of females•“all the fantastic oddities and coquetries of the vainest of females” •Are effeminate in their voice Weyéwa(sumba)•“unisex” society•Sexual differentiation is played down in this society•Men and women participate on relatively equal basis in most major subsistence tasks and political and economic decisions Weyéwa(sumba)•Pronounced differences exist only in the use of speech•Differences occur in•Content•Form •Verbal resources•Men: •speaking to ancestors & in context of divination, placation rites and celebrationsongs•Is narrative and indirect•Men are paid for performances but are fined for errors•Women: •expresses and evokes personal feelings •Uses in public: in event of misfortune•Evocative laments and ululations•Women are not fined for errors Tz e l t a l•Women•In a family context•More positively polite to intimates and familiars•Expending more interactional effort in reassuring their interest in and appreciation of their interactional contributions •In a public context•More negatively polite•Self-annihilating kinesically•Stringent interactional constraints, including•Avoidance of public displays of emotion•Public confrontation•Self-control•Self-humbling•Avoiding eye-contact•Deference to/social distance from unfamiliars(indicated by using very high-pitched register) Gapun•Women use kros(To kPisinfor “angry ”)•Krosis a female genre•It is abusive swearing•Monologue•Uttered inside the house, but intended for everyone to hear•Lengthy (45 minutes is not unusual)•Ta r g e t i s n o t a l l o w e d t o t a l k b a c k ( o r a n y o n e i n t h e i r d e f e n s e )•If men have something to say they usually get their wives to engage in kros Malagasy•Value indirectness, politeness & maintenance of harmonious social relations•Open confrontation is frowned on•Kabaryis a very formal and indirect traditional style of speaking –used on ritual occasions•This style is highly valued•Only men are considered capable of using it Malagasy Men•Use the polite and informal speech style•Use a highly valued speech style•Leave it to women to communicate unwelcome information•Give women primary responsibility for buying and sellingWomen•Use a more direct style•Use a style that is frowned upon/not valued•Issue reprimands, request favours& ask direct questions•Women dominate one economically important sphere of activity Universal trend•In some traditional societiesindirectness, consensus-seeking speech-styles are valued •This speech style is typically associated with men•Women are considered too direct to make good leaders•In the West, direct and assertive styles are seen as requirement for public and leadership roles •Also associated with male verbal skills•Women are seen as insufficiently direct Diglossia•Women and men use different varieties of language•This can give them/hinder them from privileges•Diglossiacan refer to either:•Two varieties of the same language•Two different languages CaribIndians•In some traditional, tribal societies, men and women have a whole range of different vocabularies at their disposal, to such an extent that researchers initially thought they speak different languages. A European writer-travellerin the 17thcentury had this to say about them: “The men have a great many expressions peculiar to them, which the women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand, the women have words and phrases which the men never use, or they would be laughed to scorn. Thusit happens that in their conversations it often seems as if the women had another language than the men.” (Rochefort, cited in Jespersen, 1922: 237) Ya ny u wa•Diglossiasituation•Men and women speak different dialects•Men’s and women’s roles are not only contrasted by social roles (hunting and nurturing) but also explicitly through their language use Karajá•Allegedly the language with the most differences between male and female speech. In this language, the sex of the speaker is marked phonologically –with systematic sound differences (e.g.an absence of /k/ and /ku/ in the make form Bali•Balinese & Indonesian•Balinese has 4 different registers (equivalent to four different languages)•Yo u have toknow precisely who addressee is and what register they fall under, otherwise you commit a major faux-pas•1stregister is considered quite rude•4thregister is for priests•Balinese fulfills a solidarity function, but is equated to lack of education and is not very refined•Indonesian only has 1 register•Allows to circumnavigate the complexities of the register•Not a language of solidarity Bali•Due to the complexities of the Balinese registers and the attitudes connected with Balinese and Indonesian a gender-specific language use resulted•Females understand Balinese but speak only Indonesian, as they consider the 1stregister in Balinese too crude•This is acceptable and accepted by males•Male speakers speak almost exclusively Balinese amongst each other, but accommodate the females and switch to Indonesian when addressing women•Male speakers, however, refuse to accommodate other males and are unwilling to speak Indonesian to them•There is a considerable amount of peer-pressure for males to speak Balinese, as speaking Indonesian will cast a male as an outsider•Balinese plays a crucially important solidarity role among males Ya h i(yanna/northern california)•Characterized through: •Men using suffixed elements•Women use a shorter version•Men pronounce fully and deliberately when speaking to men, but use a ‘clipped’ version when speaking to women
Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.
Women, Men & PolitenessStefanie Stadler What is politeness?•Politeness is an other-directed action oriented towards face-needs and social expectations•For example•Being less straightforward•Using mitigation devices•Avoiding strengthening devices•Avoiding conflict•Apologizing for impositions•Making it easy for others to refuse or comply•Giving interactional freedom What is politeness?•Positive politeness•Actively appealing to other’s positive face•Appealing to the need to be liked, appreciated, respected, related to positively•Negative politeness•Tr y i n g n o t to i m p e d e o n o t h e rs•Giving other space and freedom of choice What is politeness?•Politeness choices are driven by many factors•Three of the most prominent factors that have been iden<fied include:•Power•Distance•ImposiEon Case Study: Tz e l t a l•Women are very deferential to men, both in language use, non-verbal communication and demeanor•Men are generally more matter-of-fact and brusque•Women use more strengthening particles when speaking to women than when speaking to men•Women use more weakening particles when speaking to men than when speaking to women•Women use more particles overall Politeness Strategies in Tz e l t a l•Positive politeness devices•Emphatic particles•Exaggerated empathetic intonation and prosody•Negative questions•Repeats•Irony•Diminuativesand in-group address-forms•Joking Politeness Strategies in Tz e l t a l•Negative politeness devices•Performativehedges•Indirect speech acts•Pessimistic formulation of requests and offers•Minimization of impositions•Deference•Depersonalizing and deresponsibilizingmechanisms Why are Women Polite in Tz e l t a l?•Women are vulnerable in this society•To m e n b e c a u s e t h e y m a y b e a t t h e m i f t h e r e a r e t h r e a t s to their reputaEon•To women as possible sources for slights on their reputaEon•Greater distance in patrilocalsociety•Women marry into the husband’s family•Greater social distance between women than men•Cau